Groundless Beliefs
A E Mander
1In future we are going to follow the practice—until it becomes a habit—of classifying propositions according to their grounds Of every statement we come across we shall ask How do we know that What reason have we for believing that On what …ground is that statement based Probably we shall be astonished at the number of propositions met with in everyday life which we shall find it necessary to class as groundless They rest upon mere tradition or on somebodys bare assertion unsupported by even a shadow of proof
2It may be a belief which we originally accepted as a result of simple suggestion and we have continued to hold it ever since It has no w become one of our regular habits of thought Perhaps somebodysomewheresometime told us a certain thing and quite uncritically we accepted and believed it Perhaps it was way back in our early childhood—before we had even developed the power of questioning anything that might be told to us Many of our strongest convictions were established then and now in adult life we find it most difficult even to question their truth They seem to us obviously true
3But if the staunchest Roman Catholic and the staunchest Presbyterian had been exchanged when infants and if they had been brought up with home and all other influences reversed we can had very little doubt what the result would have been It is consistent with all our knowledge of psychology to conclude that each would have grown up holding exactly the opposite beliefs to those he holds now and each would then have felt as sure of the truth of his opinion as he now feels—of the truth of the opposite opinion The same thing is true of course of many beliefs other than those of a religious nature If we had grown up in a community where polygamy or headhunting or infanticide or gladiatorial fighting or dueling was regarded as the normal and natural thing—then we should have grown up to regard it as obviously natural and perfectly moral and proper Many of our beliefs—many of our most deeplyrooted and fundamental convictions—are held simply as a result of the fact that we happen to have been brought up to them
4Of course we do not cease when we cease to be children to adopt new beliefs on mere suggestion We continue doing it more or less unconsciously all our lives hence to take only the most striking examples the enormous influence of newspapers and the effectiveness of skilful advertising Much of what passes as such is not strictly thinking at all It is the mere parroting of ideas picked up by chance and adopted as our own without question Most people most of the time are mere parrots But as we leave childhood we tend to accept only such new ideas as fit in with the ideas we already hold and all conflicting ideas seem to us obviously absurd
5Propositions that are accepted simply because everybody says so must be classed under the same heading The dogma may not be that of any particular individual it may be a dogmatic statement which has been passed from one person to another from generation to generation perhaps for hundreds—perhaps for thousands—of years It may be part of the traditional belief of the people or the race In that case it is part of our social inheritance from some period in the past But we should fully face the fact that beliefs which are merely inherited from the past must have originated at a time when men knew much less than they know today So the fact that a belief is old is no argument in its favour
6We need especially to be on our guard when we come across propositions which seem to be obviously true
7When we find ourselves entertaining an opinion about which there is a feeling that even to enquire into it would be absurd unnecessary undesirable or wicked—we may know that that opinion is a nonrational one
8When we are tempted to say that any general truth is so obvious that it would be absurd even to question it we should remember that the whole history of the development of human thought has been full of cases of such obvious truths breaking down when examined in the light of increasing knowledge and reason For instance for ages nothing could have seemed more obvious more utterly beyond question that the proposition that slavery was natural reasonable necessary and right Some kinds of men were obviously slaves by nature To doubt it was impossible
9Again for more than two thousand years it was impossible to conceive the planets as moving in paths other than circles The circle was obviously the perfect figure and so it was natural and inevitable to suppose that the planets moved in circles The agelong struggle of the greatest intellects in the world to shake off that assumption is one of the marvels of history
10It was formerly obvious that the heart—and not the brain was the organ of consciousness To most people today it seems equally obvious that we think with our brains Many modern persons find it very difficult to credit the fact that men can even have supposed otherwise Yet—they did
11That the earth must be flat formerly seemed so obvious and selfevident that the very suggestion of any other possibility would have been—and was—regarded as a joke
12It was for two thousand years taken for granted as obvious that a heavy weight must fall faster than a light one An assumed or dogmatic proposition which had been universally accepted as obvious and which when challenged was supported by reference to a dogma of Aristotle Until Galileo actually demonstrated the contrary nothing could have seemed more beyond possibility or doubt
13Propositions which are accepted blindly without question on the grounds of mere assumption or dogma need to be frankly recognized as such Progress in human thought seems to consist mainly in getting rid of such ideas
14Other beliefs are held through selfinterest Modern psychology leaves us no room for doubt on this point We adopt and cling to some beliefs because—or partly because—it pays us to do so But as a rule the person concerned is about the last person in the world to be able to recognize this in himself Indeed he would probably be highly indignant if told of what anyone familiar with modern psychology can recognize plainly It would be quite wrong to attribute all opinions—even political opinions—to selfinterest But it would be equally wrong to deny that this is one potent factor
15Selfinterest is to be understood first in the ordinary sense as referring t o a mans way of earning his livelihood and acquiring wealth But we may extend the term to cover also his interest in social position popularity with his fellows the respect and goodwill of those whose respect and goodwill he values It covers his interest in his own career in whatever prestige he enjoys as one of the leaders—or at least as a valued supporter—of some movement or institution some religious body some other kind of society or group There is many a man who is unconsciously compelled to c ling to a belief because he is a somebody in some circle—and if he were to abandon that belief he would find himself nobody at all
16Putting it broadly we should always suspect any of our opinions when we recognize that our happiness depends directly or indirectly upon our continuing to hold them—when we might lose anything material or otherwise by changing our opinion
10Somewhat similar is the acceptance of an opinion through the desire—probably not recognized by the person concerned—to justify his own nature his own position or his own behaviour The coward can so easily adopt a philosophy which seems to justify cowardice—though of course cowardice is not the name he gives it The lazy and bungling person can adopt a set of opinions which prove to his satisfaction that the grapes are sour—the grapes being the rewards that more energetic and competent men can win
11Many groundless opinions are held through sentimental associations The thought is associated with memories—pleasant or unpleasant as the case may be—of particular persons who held similar opinions It is found that many a man who in childhood was hostile to his father in after life is always prejudiced against whatever opinions his father used to express And conversely in the case of one who has pleasant recollections of his father his mother a teacher perhaps or some other person who played a big part in his early life
12In adult life as we have often observed a bitter quarrel may change a mans opinion entirely Antagonism to a man usually produces some antagonism to his opinions and the bitterness felt against the man usually spreads to the idea for which he stands What keen satisfaction we find in belittling the opinions or attacking the opinions of somebody of whom we are jealous or of somebody against whom we bear a grudge But on the other hand it is equally true that friendly feelings to a man have an effect in disposing us to feel friendly to his views
13Other opinions again are determined by what we may best call Fashion To take one example how largely our opinions on the merits of certain authors or poets or composers are dictated merely by fashion But the effect of fashion is very much wider than that we trace it almost everywhere in every field of thought We tend very strongly to feel and to believe as others are feeling and believing Not all others perhaps but others of our own set
14But we do not as a rule continue all our lives changing our sentiments and opinions with every change of fashion Sooner or later our minds become fixed Many a man holds his opinions today—because they happened to be in fashion ten twenty thirty forty or fifty years ago
15Once an opinion is accepted whatever be the cause of its acceptance it has a strong tendency to persist Every time we think along a particular thoughtpattern makes it easier for us to think the same way again It is quite legitimate to speak of habits of thought The brain path becomes so well worn the pattern of braincentres becomes so well connected up by continual use that the nerve current finds a route of practically no resistance and so it always takes almost exactly the same course
16The same thing is true of opinions and beliefs of all kinds After they have been held a certain length of time they become as it were so stamped in by continual use that it is almost impossible now to change them While we are young we are continually taking in new ideas altering our thoughtpatterns making up our minds afresh As we grow older we become less and less able to accept any new idea which will not fit in with our existing thoughtpattern Thus we become in Jamess term Old Fogeys Sometimes our thoughtpatterns set while we are still quite young In a few rare cases they remain open or alterable even into old age An Old Fogey may have become such at seventeen—or seventy I am almost afraid to say so (says James) but I believe that in the majority of human beings Old Fogeyism begins at about the age of twentyfive
Yet when full allowance has been made for all these nonrational factors in the determination of opinion there remains—not in all minds not in most minds but in some—a desire to discover the facts to think things out in a clear and rational way to get at the truth at all costs whatever it may turn out to be For such minds this is written
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A E Mander
1In future we are going to follow the practice—until it becomes a habit—of classifying propositions according to their grounds Of every statement we come across we shall ask How do we know that What reason have we for believing that On what …ground is that statement based Probably we shall be astonished at the number of propositions met with in everyday life which we shall find it necessary to class as groundless They rest upon mere tradition or on somebodys bare assertion unsupported by even a shadow of proof
2It may be a belief which we originally accepted as a result of simple suggestion and we have continued to hold it ever since It has no w become one of our regular habits of thought Perhaps somebodysomewheresometime told us a certain thing and quite uncritically we accepted and believed it Perhaps it was way back in our early childhood—before we had even developed the power of questioning anything that might be told to us Many of our strongest convictions were established then and now in adult life we find it most difficult even to question their truth They seem to us obviously true
3But if the staunchest Roman Catholic and the staunchest Presbyterian had been exchanged when infants and if they had been brought up with home and all other influences reversed we can had very little doubt what the result would have been It is consistent with all our knowledge of psychology to conclude that each would have grown up holding exactly the opposite beliefs to those he holds now and each would then have felt as sure of the truth of his opinion as he now feels—of the truth of the opposite opinion The same thing is true of course of many beliefs other than those of a religious nature If we had grown up in a community where polygamy or headhunting or infanticide or gladiatorial fighting or dueling was regarded as the normal and natural thing—then we should have grown up to regard it as obviously natural and perfectly moral and proper Many of our beliefs—many of our most deeplyrooted and fundamental convictions—are held simply as a result of the fact that we happen to have been brought up to them
4Of course we do not cease when we cease to be children to adopt new beliefs on mere suggestion We continue doing it more or less unconsciously all our lives hence to take only the most striking examples the enormous influence of newspapers and the effectiveness of skilful advertising Much of what passes as such is not strictly thinking at all It is the mere parroting of ideas picked up by chance and adopted as our own without question Most people most of the time are mere parrots But as we leave childhood we tend to accept only such new ideas as fit in with the ideas we already hold and all conflicting ideas seem to us obviously absurd
5Propositions that are accepted simply because everybody says so must be classed under the same heading The dogma may not be that of any particular individual it may be a dogmatic statement which has been passed from one person to another from generation to generation perhaps for hundreds—perhaps for thousands—of years It may be part of the traditional belief of the people or the race In that case it is part of our social inheritance from some period in the past But we should fully face the fact that beliefs which are merely inherited from the past must have originated at a time when men knew much less than they know today So the fact that a belief is old is no argument in its favour
6We need especially to be on our guard when we come across propositions which seem to be obviously true
7When we find ourselves entertaining an opinion about which there is a feeling that even to enquire into it would be absurd unnecessary undesirable or wicked—we may know that that opinion is a nonrational one
8When we are tempted to say that any general truth is so obvious that it would be absurd even to question it we should remember that the whole history of the development of human thought has been full of cases of such obvious truths breaking down when examined in the light of increasing knowledge and reason For instance for ages nothing could have seemed more obvious more utterly beyond question that the proposition that slavery was natural reasonable necessary and right Some kinds of men were obviously slaves by nature To doubt it was impossible
9Again for more than two thousand years it was impossible to conceive the planets as moving in paths other than circles The circle was obviously the perfect figure and so it was natural and inevitable to suppose that the planets moved in circles The agelong struggle of the greatest intellects in the world to shake off that assumption is one of the marvels of history
10It was formerly obvious that the heart—and not the brain was the organ of consciousness To most people today it seems equally obvious that we think with our brains Many modern persons find it very difficult to credit the fact that men can even have supposed otherwise Yet—they did
11That the earth must be flat formerly seemed so obvious and selfevident that the very suggestion of any other possibility would have been—and was—regarded as a joke
12It was for two thousand years taken for granted as obvious that a heavy weight must fall faster than a light one An assumed or dogmatic proposition which had been universally accepted as obvious and which when challenged was supported by reference to a dogma of Aristotle Until Galileo actually demonstrated the contrary nothing could have seemed more beyond possibility or doubt
13Propositions which are accepted blindly without question on the grounds of mere assumption or dogma need to be frankly recognized as such Progress in human thought seems to consist mainly in getting rid of such ideas
14Other beliefs are held through selfinterest Modern psychology leaves us no room for doubt on this point We adopt and cling to some beliefs because—or partly because—it pays us to do so But as a rule the person concerned is about the last person in the world to be able to recognize this in himself Indeed he would probably be highly indignant if told of what anyone familiar with modern psychology can recognize plainly It would be quite wrong to attribute all opinions—even political opinions—to selfinterest But it would be equally wrong to deny that this is one potent factor
15Selfinterest is to be understood first in the ordinary sense as referring t o a mans way of earning his livelihood and acquiring wealth But we may extend the term to cover also his interest in social position popularity with his fellows the respect and goodwill of those whose respect and goodwill he values It covers his interest in his own career in whatever prestige he enjoys as one of the leaders—or at least as a valued supporter—of some movement or institution some religious body some other kind of society or group There is many a man who is unconsciously compelled to c ling to a belief because he is a somebody in some circle—and if he were to abandon that belief he would find himself nobody at all
16Putting it broadly we should always suspect any of our opinions when we recognize that our happiness depends directly or indirectly upon our continuing to hold them—when we might lose anything material or otherwise by changing our opinion
10Somewhat similar is the acceptance of an opinion through the desire—probably not recognized by the person concerned—to justify his own nature his own position or his own behaviour The coward can so easily adopt a philosophy which seems to justify cowardice—though of course cowardice is not the name he gives it The lazy and bungling person can adopt a set of opinions which prove to his satisfaction that the grapes are sour—the grapes being the rewards that more energetic and competent men can win
11Many groundless opinions are held through sentimental associations The thought is associated with memories—pleasant or unpleasant as the case may be—of particular persons who held similar opinions It is found that many a man who in childhood was hostile to his father in after life is always prejudiced against whatever opinions his father used to express And conversely in the case of one who has pleasant recollections of his father his mother a teacher perhaps or some other person who played a big part in his early life
12In adult life as we have often observed a bitter quarrel may change a mans opinion entirely Antagonism to a man usually produces some antagonism to his opinions and the bitterness felt against the man usually spreads to the idea for which he stands What keen satisfaction we find in belittling the opinions or attacking the opinions of somebody of whom we are jealous or of somebody against whom we bear a grudge But on the other hand it is equally true that friendly feelings to a man have an effect in disposing us to feel friendly to his views
13Other opinions again are determined by what we may best call Fashion To take one example how largely our opinions on the merits of certain authors or poets or composers are dictated merely by fashion But the effect of fashion is very much wider than that we trace it almost everywhere in every field of thought We tend very strongly to feel and to believe as others are feeling and believing Not all others perhaps but others of our own set
14But we do not as a rule continue all our lives changing our sentiments and opinions with every change of fashion Sooner or later our minds become fixed Many a man holds his opinions today—because they happened to be in fashion ten twenty thirty forty or fifty years ago
15Once an opinion is accepted whatever be the cause of its acceptance it has a strong tendency to persist Every time we think along a particular thoughtpattern makes it easier for us to think the same way again It is quite legitimate to speak of habits of thought The brain path becomes so well worn the pattern of braincentres becomes so well connected up by continual use that the nerve current finds a route of practically no resistance and so it always takes almost exactly the same course
16The same thing is true of opinions and beliefs of all kinds After they have been held a certain length of time they become as it were so stamped in by continual use that it is almost impossible now to change them While we are young we are continually taking in new ideas altering our thoughtpatterns making up our minds afresh As we grow older we become less and less able to accept any new idea which will not fit in with our existing thoughtpattern Thus we become in Jamess term Old Fogeys Sometimes our thoughtpatterns set while we are still quite young In a few rare cases they remain open or alterable even into old age An Old Fogey may have become such at seventeen—or seventy I am almost afraid to say so (says James) but I believe that in the majority of human beings Old Fogeyism begins at about the age of twentyfive
Yet when full allowance has been made for all these nonrational factors in the determination of opinion there remains—not in all minds not in most minds but in some—a desire to discover the facts to think things out in a clear and rational way to get at the truth at all costs whatever it may turn out to be For such minds this is written
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