** 工 程 学 院 外 语 系 毕 业 生 文
Introduction
Translation is a kind of information communication and exchange activity also a kind of comprehensive and complete information spread It uses another language to express and transfer information correctly Exactly as Jurilotman says each language stems from certain concrete culture and takes certain natural language as its center As translation is the exchange of two languages culture exchange is necessary
Different life style value conceptorals belief thinking way cause plenty of differences in many aspects between two languages which cause obstacles towards language learning and ChineseEnglish translation
Culture differences cause of the obstacle translation but that does not mean that translation is impossible in order to reach the real communication between two languages translator should go deep into two cultures in the course from unpainstaking to painstaking and recognize another culture from point of its owners on the basis of ChineseEnglish differences combine chinese and english culture so translator must carry logical deduction on the basis of the exact connotation of the origin language context and try to let readers get the same feelings as the origin language readers
Chapter One The Cultural Orientation in Translation Studies
11 A Brief Discussion of Culture and Translation
Translation and culture are closely related to each other For translation is not only the transfer of one language to another language but also an important means of communication across cultures According to Edward Burnett Tylor in primitive cultures(1871) culture is that complex whole which includes knowledge belief art morals law customs and many other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society (qtd In Chen Dongcheng 2) This definition continually being the basis of modern anthropological conceptions of culture clearly shows that culture regulates people’s life in every possible way including technoeconomic system social system ideational system and linguistic system In reality cultural elements vary from one to another to different degrees thus leading to differences between cultures though no one can accurately point out how many different cultures exist in the world It is these cultural differences that hinder the effective communication among people of different nations and that make translation necessary
Translation is an activity of an enormous importance in the modern world It is a kind of means of exchanges of thought and feeling for peoples who speak different languages Increased international exchanges in science politics trade management and culture have book entitled about translation Peter Newmark proposes five wider purposes of translation among which three are related to crosscultural communication
(1) The first purpose is to contribute to understanding and peace between nations groups and individuals
(2) The second purpose of translation is to transmit knowledge in plain appropriate and accessible language
(3) The third purpose is to explain and mediate between cultures on the basis of a common humanity respecting their strengths implicitly exposing their weaknesses
So we can see cultural exchange should be one of the primary goals of translation Translation facilitates cultural exchange between people from different cultural phenomena of other people thus promoting cultural exchange Translation as generally agreed has played an important role in cultural exchange through which people with different culture can understand more deeply build up closer relationship with each other and even advance themselves by learning from each other In other words each culture can be in touch with other cultures of varying types through translating
12 Cultural Approach to Translation
More and more people in the translation field begin to realize that translations are never produced in a vacuum and that they are also never received in a vacuum In 1990s Susan Bassnett and Andre Lefebvre were the first to suggest that translation studies take the cultural turn the study of translation is the study of cultural interaction(8) Nida also stresses the cultural aspects of translation Since World War Two there have two main streams in translation theory that have developed in Germany the linguistically oriented approach and the culturally oriented approach which is in particular represented by Hans J Vermeer Vermeer describes his concept of translation as follows
Translation is not the transcoding of words or sentences from one language to another but a complex form of action whereby someone provides information on a text (source language material) in a new situation and under changed functional cultural and linguistic conditions preserving formal aspects as closely as possible(33)
He has for many years vehemently opposed the view that translation is simply a matter of language for him translation is primarily a crosscultural transfer According to the cultural approach to translation translation proper is viewed as a cultural product while translating as a cultural transcending process and translation studies as a culturally oriented subject (Vermeer 40) These concepts of translation have greatly widened the meaning of translation translating and translation studies beyond a mere linguistic manipulation In other words translation has become a crosscultural event The culturally oriented approach has some potential for bridging the cultural gap among different peoples thus enhancing the intercultural communication
To sum up translating as a human activity is essentially a communicative process It has been recognized that communication theory should be employed to explain the complex phenomenon of translation while translation itself takes sociocultural message as the object of its operation As the mediator between the culture of the source text and that of the receptor translators are in effect bridges between these two entities They are responsible to try their utmost to attain the goal of crosscultural communication
Chapter Two Culture Discrepancy and Information Loss
21 Idiom and proverb
211 Idiom
Language is the media of culture idiom include proverb slang fold adage metaphor phrase and so on is the quintessence of language Not only does idiom has complete meaning steady structure peculiar grammar but also it is full of cultural information extremely This kind of information maybe national maybe folk custom more them are implication There are part corresponding occasionally between English idiom and Chinese idiom but seldom complete corresponding therefore idiom embedded in the culture characteristic of language is more typical compared with other language composition For example
pull one’s leg is not 拖腿it is 愚弄 a walking skeleton has no connection with 行尸走肉 it implies a thin and pallid person looks like a walking skeleton fishing in the air in English while 水底捞月 in Chinese the same as the pot calls the kettle black its literal meaning is 老鸦嫌猪黑 the meaning it expresses is one himself has the same fault with others he point to while in Chinese we have 五十步笑百步 however even if the meaning of them are similar they cannot be translated in any condition The meaning of Chinese idiom 五十步笑百步 is Both the two people have faults but one is not serious as another which is not contained in English idiom the pot calls the kettle black There is a universal idiom 尚挑水吃两尚抬水吃三尚没水吃 in china If translators do not consider the understanding degree of the culture of this idiom of westerners before translating and just translate it into A lone monk brings his own bucket water to drink two monks carry their bucket water jointly but when three monks are together there is no water at all Well foreigners will be puzzled when they read this sort of translation why three monks cannot carry their bucket water jointly The reason is that the translation does not convey the deep culture connotation of this idiom So it is difficult for us to hold all the composition from surface meaning to deep meaning and culture characteristic in translation
Since English and Chinese idioms are steady word groups and sentences formed in the process of language using its connotation and structure cannot be changed it is evident to take some appropriate measures such as appropriate regulation towards the original idioms according to the context must be made to express the connotation and national cultural characteristic of the original in translation otherwise problems will be caused when translating into another language such as information loss
212 Proverb
Not only is proverb an important part of each nation culture but also language’s People often use them unconsciously As there are so many discrepancies between Chinese and English cultures we should notice them clearly
Chinese often say 东施效颦 叶公龙 愚公移山 狗咬吕洞宾识心 while westerners often say That’s all Greek to me(窍通) He’s a Shylock(守财奴) a Pandora’s box(潘拉盒：潘拉时宙斯神送盒子私开切灾害罪恶全跑散世希留里面语喻灾难麻烦祸害等根源) In Chinese culture 班门弄斧 is known to every house hold but people in English countries don’t know who is LuBan and what he does which forms culture blank If translators translate it into to show off one’s proficiency with the ax before LuBan English and Americans will not understand what it is driving at So explanation can be added to translation to interpret the origin of the idiom free translation which is brief can be used to translate it into to show off in the presence of an expert Another example 三臭皮匠顶诸葛亮 Zhuge Liang is a famous person in Chinese history and is known to all but English and American readers do not know him and his connection with 臭皮匠
It is difficulty to reproduce the rich history culture information contained in sentences by free translation For this reason only take literal translation and contextual amplication together can the original language culture be reproduced as fully as possible
22 Custom
Different life experiences and customs between English nation and Chinese nation certainly will cause great discrepancy in conner manner and pattern when convey recognize questions Views towards the same thing will be entirely different because of different culture background
In Chinese culture dragon is a magical animal in Chinese antiquity mythology It stands for the antiquity emperor such as 龙袍 龙颜 Now it has been symbolize of Chinese nation as a kind of culture accumulation We are proud of saying 龙传 There are plenty of idioms with 龙 express happy wish and power such as 龙飞凤舞龙腾虎跃生龙活虎藏龙卧虎攀龙附凤子成龙 But in Bible Evil Satan who is oppose to God is called the Great Dragon In English Dragon always stands for evil horror So Dragon is a horror monster and always used to metaphor vicious power Chinese often use 子成龙 to express their will towards children If it is translated into expecting one’s child to be a dragon Foreigners will be amazed as nobody is willing their children to change into evil So only the image of 龙 in 子成龙 be cancelled and translated into everyone wants his child to shine does it reach the same effect as Chinese Take owl for another example owl is connected with die death bad unlucky funeral in Chinese it always stands for unlucky Because owl relates to forewarning and superstition it always acts at night its sound sounds sad there is a statement 林中听声家里会死 However in English culture owl stands for wise such as as wise as an owl owlish owlishly clever serious
So it is certain to keep special caution in the course of translation when there is culture collision Free translation or free translation plus explanation can be taken to solute translation of words by words should be avoid otherwise misread will be caused
23 Religion Belief and Historical Allusion
231 Religion Faith
Different historical origins cause different religious beliefs
Most Chinese believe in Buddhism People who believe in Buddhism think that Beads can control everything of the world there is 花献佛 闲时烧香时抱佛脚 and so on In many west countries people believe in Christianity and there are plenty of idioms connected with Christianity For example God helps those who help themselves (帝帮助助) But there is also curse such as go to hell Besides in Chinese culture both 天and are stand for supreme divinities Newlymarried couple 天can be translated into kowtow to heaven and earth
So when we do translation works we must notice these culture differences take proper measures to reach the real communication between two languages
232 Allusion
As we all know set phrase and allusion stemmed from Bible can be found everywhere in English and American’s daily life Such as Noah’s ark (诺亚方舟) the Tower of Babel (巴塔喻空想计划空中楼阁) scape—goat (罪羊喻指代受者) Naboth’s bineyard (伯葡萄园喻指垂涎物) and so on I believe that we are all familiar with the Trojan War these are the Greek gifts for you is a classical remark about the Trojan War This sentence stemmed from the epic Sacrificial person when the Greeks left a big wooden horse outside Trojan city Laocoon persuaded people not to accept anything the Greeks left he said I fear the Greek even when bringing gifts But it is a pity that Trojans didn’t listen to him took the horse into their city There were picked Greek soldiers in the horse and they perished Trojan for this reason Greek gifts is about equal to the English proverb when the fox preaches take care of your geese and is commensurate with the Chinese set phrase 黄鼠狼鸡拜年没安心
As there are so many discrepancies between Chinese and English cultures we should notice these discrepancies when translating and try to translate them better
24 Cultural Connotation of Color Words
Culture limits the significance deduction of color words culture significance of color words refract many rich culture connotation Different cultural contexts cultural traditions and culture psychologies causes different culture connotation of color words even cause understanding and expression error In fact in different situation and language environment it is the deep culture element of color words that cause people’s association of certain color words not the surface significance Once color words gain connotation or culture not only is it an objective concrete thing but also a kind of steady thought way and reflects very important social meaning and culture connotation Color deduces different associative meaning and symbolizes meaning in the long human history Different culture environment of English nation and Chinese nation formed different color concept For instance
In the traditional concept of Chinese nation yellow is the color of emperor so there is 黄袍加身 in history at the same time yellow have the meaning 道德 流 however yellow’s meanings in English is different it’s 胆懦弱 Such as yellowbelly胆鬼懦夫
Besides white also has different significance in English and Chinese the bride’s white ceremonial robe stands for lucky and happy while in Chinese culture it stands for funeral affairs Another example red stand for joyous and happy in Chinese culture it is a commendatory term Such as 红运头 红火 红歌星 and so on Seeing red Chinese always think of good turn such as Chinese traditional wedding while westerners think of blood violence or crime red also stands for danger therefore in western there is to catch someone red –landed场捉住某 to paint the town red狂欢胡闹 red tape官僚作风 red light district红灯区 and so on
From the above examples we can obtain that the same color can express different culture psychology and cause different culture association with different culture connotation In the translation of color words we must grasp its culture meaning and try to translate the imply meaning of the original correctly and the appraise significance of the original according to the concrete context otherwise it cannot translate the information completely and causes nonunderstandable information distortion So in EnglishChinese translation only understand the meaning correctly try to figure out carefully can translators present the culture connotation contained in the original color completely
Chapter Three Strategic Methods of Cultural Compensation
31 Annotation
Since Chinese culture and English culture are different translation of some certain words are different to interpret there words clearly such as people’s name or technical terms annotation is needed Annotation is to add some interpretation to the translation after translating To translate people’s name or technical terms which are national and cultural we can take the method of transliteration annotation There are two forms
311 Transliteration Annotation
In order to let reader’s know the implication of the transliteration words exactly translators always add some explanation words to the transliteration words when transliterate some certain original people’s name place name or technical term such as in EnglishChinese sauna桑（浴）（源芬兰种蒸浴）Zeus宙思（希腊神话中神）Venus维纳斯（罗马神话中爱美女神）Pandora’s box潘拉盒子（根希腊神话宙斯命潘拉带着盒子潘拉私开盒子里面疾病罪恶等种祸害全跑出散布世）Internet特网（国际范围计算机互联网络）
In ChineseEnglish translation to let the western reader understand Chinese culture better transliteration annotation is always taken For example 清明Qingming(a Chinese traditional holiday to commemorate the dead observed in late spring ) 太极拳Taijiquan (taiji a form of stylized exercises based on Chinese martial arts which emphasize the smooth transition of one movement into another while retaining balance) 饮茶Yincha(a style of serving Chinese food in which dinners help themselves to small quantities from a wide range of dishes wheeled around on a trolley)
312 Literal Translation
In order to introduce the knowledge concern to the original language culture and make them understand the original cultureliteral translation is always taken
Translators use annotation to make up the meaning loss caused by literal translation
This kind of translation can allow translation reader to join in the original reader as possible as they can to understand the original custom thought ways and expression skill Such as 然烟钓着竿子旧递探春探春递宝玉宝玉道：做姜太公便走石矶坐池边钓起岂知水里鱼见影躲处（曹雪芹红楼梦第81回）
When Hisuyen had followed suit and returned the rod to Tanchun she handed it to Baoyu I am going to fish like Jiang Taigong he announced as he walked the stone steps and sat down by the pool But his reflection frightened the fish away (Translate by cCao Xueqin)Jiang Taigong of the eleventh century BC was said to fish by the Weishui River (present Shensi) hold a line with no hook or bart there feet above the water and say at the same time Whoever is ordained come and take the bait
In Chinese culture for common western reader the name姜太公is strange Translator firstly translate it literally then introduce cultural background related to it By this the western reader can understand the profound connotation of the metaphor姜太公钓鱼愿者钩completely therefore fulfill the transfer of the cultural information
In English and Chinese language only through literal annotation can many of the cultural connotations of proverb be understand deeply by destination reader For example Achilles’ heel阿基里斯脚踵阿基里斯希腊神话中英雄出生母亲握脚踵倒提着冥河水里浸未浸水脚踵外浑身刀枪入脚踵称致命弱点Vulcan and Venus 乌尔坎维纳斯罗马神话中乌尔坎维纳斯丈夫火冶炼神天生瘸腿容貌丑陋维纳斯爱美神子成龙：long to see one’s son succeed in life long to see one’s son become a dragon(ie went success in the world) 三臭皮匠赛诸葛亮：three cobblers with their wits combined surpass ZhuGe Liang the master mind—the wisdom of the masses exceeds that of the wisest individual
32 Contextual Amplification
As an effective methods to pass culture information contextual amplification is a c
ourse of expressing the meanings in translation which the original reader know clearly while the translational reader not Contextual amplification is a process from outside to inside a process of changing the preface structure to deep structure that is to say to express the composition which are omitted in original preface and make the translational reader understand the information contained in the original For instants
(1) My 15 students read Emerson Thoreau and Huxley (College English Intensive Reading Book 2 p 47) 教15位学生读艾默生梭罗赫胥黎作品Emerson ThoreauHuxley分哲学家然家说作家名字动词read面翻译时译名字应该补充必信息
(2) 难道痴丫头颦葬花称？笑道：真叶葬花谓东施效颦新奇更厌（曹雪芹红楼梦第30回）
Can this be some silly maid come here to bury flowers like Frowner He wondered He was reminded of Zhuangzi’s story of the beautiful Xishi’s ugly neighbor whose endeavours to imitate the little frown that made Xishi captivating produced an aspect so hideous that people ran away from her in terror (David Hawkes)
Common western reader don not understand the metaphor the beautiful Xishi’s ugly neighbor whose endeavor to imitate the little fiownIn Chinese Translator melt this metaphor in original into the destination language ingeniously and give the translational reader important cultural information Another example
(3) It was Friday and soon they’d go out and get drunk 星期五发薪日马会出喝酩酊醉If translate it into：星期五出喝酩酊醉It seems loyal smooth however readers are puzzled Why they go out and drunk only in Friday As it turns out it is Friday that employees gain their salaries so in translation it is inevitable to express the meaning contained in Friday and make the culture information be clear at a glance It must point out that translators should loyal to the original when they adopt contextual amplification method The words added to the original should be appropriate If they add anything that the original has not they make the overtake translation error
33 Paraphrase
Paraphrase is not to translate the original context word by word it is a sort of means to explain the meaning of the original words and sentences in context to translational readers straightly Nera says Translating means translating meaning If the translation can’t express the original meaning clearly and puzzled its readers It is not good translation In fact it is an effective skills for translators to use the most brief words to embed explanation words into translation straightly
(1)Being a teacher is being present at the creation when the clay begins to breathe
(Cllege English Intensive Reading Book 2 p 48) 名教师意味着创造见证目睹体开始呼吸开始生命In this sentence creation clay and breath relate to the creation context the world in Bible Here clay is 体 which opposite to soul while breathe stands for成长发展If translate clay and breathe into 粘土 and 呼吸 many readers will not know what it wants to express
(2)Let both sides unite to heed in all corners of the earth the command of Isaiah to undo the heavy burdens(and) let the oppressed go free(John K ennedy Inaugural Speech)球什方双方记住先知赛亚（圣物）重托：卸重负受压迫活
Isaish is a person of foresight stem from Bible and the Old Testament His name is Jehovah save He is rich in accomplishment full of literary talent and broad and profound learning He is not afraid of authority authority and not scared of danger he predicts that Isuel will be saved now and thenKennedy referred to this name in his brief assume office Speech For westerners who believe in Christianity it’s influence and moral is selfevident However if Isaiah be translate into 赛亚 literally added no explanational illustration plenty of Chinese will not know this person not to say the connective meaning
For destination readers many idioms or allusions are rather strange free translation is a better choice in translation Such as
(i)投罗网：Walk right into the trap
(ii)奇花异木：Exotic flowers and rare trees
(iii)班门弄斧：Showing off one’s proficiency with the axe before Lu Ban the master carpenter
(iv)志者事竟成：Where there’s a will there’s a way
34 Adaptation
When there is no certain cultural phenomenon of the original or connective culture or connotation in destination translators always use adaptation that is to say to translate the original culture into destination culture as possible as they can By this the context and form of the original do not surpass the knowledge range of the translation reader and understood better by its readers For example
(1) Among the blind the one eyed man is King
山中老虎猴子称霸王（宜译成：盲圈里独眼王）
（2）When John was talking about the affair we smelled a rat
约翰说件事时感怀疑（宜译成：约翰说件事时闻老鼠）
（3）俗语说：清官难断家务事时正公婆难断床帷事（红楼梦第23回）
As an old saying goes Not even good officials can settle family troubles so Not
even parents can settle disputes between son and wife
(If translate 床帷事 into thing in the bed curtain readers will feel funny)
Since translation refers the transform of two different cultures of two different languages we cannot neglect the divergence of two different culture we should take appropriate methods to carry out culture compensation in translation Translators should use one or more ways to transform original information completely and to fulfill maximum equality between translation and original In the process of translation translators should give consideration to the connection between translation and original not only loyal to the original but also make the translation correct smooth easy to understand meet the destination language’s habit Only in this way can the translation reader gain the same feelings as the original reader
Conclusion
Translation is the forcible replacement of the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text with a text that will be intelligible to the targetlanguage reader Difficulties in translation are due to precisely the lack of onetoone correspondence between source language and the target language because of linguistic and cultural differences Thus cultural loss in translation is unavoidable In order to inherit the cultural relics and promote cultural among different peoples the translator must compensate for the cultural losses in the process of translation for common core in human culture has provided an important bases for it
Cultural compensation in translation should be viewed as a manipulation that consciously constitutes a meeting point where cultures are mutually enriched Therefore translators should try to make cultural peculiarity comprehensible in the recipient culture while also preserving the integrity of the source culture as far as possible by employing different strategic compensation methods to keep the cultural loss to a minimum It is impossible to compensate for all cultural elements in an article or a book using only one method of cultural compensation so one must take a flexible attitude in dong compensation My view of all these compensation methods may be boiled down to one concise conclusion that they are indispensable and supplementary to one another with the method of annotation as the primary and other methods as the secondary and they ought to be adopted in a flexible and realistic manner
All in all thesis is a preliminary attempt to probe into the culture issues within limited time and space
There are still more to be found in the studies of this aspect
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文中文缩写
前言
作语际交流工具翻译仅语言转换程文化移植程中西方生活方式价值观念伦理道德宗教信仰思维方式等方面差异导致中西两种语言诸方面语言学造成定障碍英汉翻译产生影响
文化差异造成翻译障碍意味着翻译然种刻意程需译者觉深入两种文化中区充分认识中英文化差异基础努力异文化持者角度感知异文化真正中西文化结合起达两种语言间真正交流译者必须根原语词汇语境中确切含义进行逻辑推理译语损失信息加补偿译语种显示出原语中明实含义译文读者原文读者致相感受
第章 翻译中文化转
翻译文化紧密相连翻译单纯种语言转换成外种语言种跨文化间重交流手段越越译者开始意识翻译蹴会蹴
翻译作种类活动种交流程交流理应阐释复杂翻译现象翻译应基社会文化基础互相作分割
第二章 文化差异信息走失翻译信息走失
21 英汉语谚语文化差异
211 语
语言文化载体语堪称语言精华仅意义完整结构固定语法特殊文化信息异常丰富种信息民族民俗更言外意话外音语体现语言文化特征方面语言成分更具典型性
212 谚语
谚语历史文化中重组成部分具浓厚民族色彩文化性
22 风俗惯文化差异翻译信息突
英汉民族生活验风俗惯势必造成英汉民族观察认识问题角度方式方法存着差异件事物文化背景法相径庭翻译程中出现文化突时定特 谨慎采取意译意译加解释方法解决切字字翻译否会引起误解
23 宗教信仰历史典文化差异翻译信息影响
231 宗教信仰
中西文化历史渊源宗教信仰
232 典
典民族文化重组成部分 语言重组成部分常常觉运民族文化遗产典
24 颜色词文化涵翻译信息失真
文化制约着颜色词意义演变颜色词文化意义折射出丰富文化涵文化容文化传统文化心理异英汉颜色词文化涵差异较容易造成理解表达错误实际场合语境里非某颜色词表层意义起作深层文化素造成某种颜色联想颜色词旦获涵意义文化意义仅指客观某种具体事物种定思想方法反映出非常重社会意义文化涵颜色漫长类历史演绎着联想意义象征意义英汉民族文化环境形成色彩观
第三章 翻译中文化补偿
作语际交流工具翻译仅语言转换程文化移植程原语文化译语文化间差异受语境时空观念思维方式等素制约原语符号译语符号指称语言言三意义层面应换句话说翻译时总少信息走失译者必须根原语词汇语境中确切含义进行逻辑推理译文读者原文读者致相感受
31 加注
翻译某民族文化性强名术语时采取音译加注方法处理两种形式
311 音译附加说明性译文
音译原语某名名术语时译者音译词面加解释性文字便译语读者解该音译词确切含义
312 直译加注
译语读者介绍原语文化关知识加深原文解译者采直译加注办法补偿直译带意义损失种翻译允许译文读者加入原语行列充分理解原文俗思维方式表现手法
32 增译
作传递文化信息种效手段增译译文中表示出原语读者目然译语读者知道意义增译程实际表里原文表层结构原成深层结构程说原文表层省略成分现出译语读者理解原文中蕴含信息
33 释义
释义逐字逐句移译原文直接译者解释原语词句文中意义种手段情况译者简练语言直接译文中嵌进阐释性文字失种效翻译技巧
34 化
原语中某种文化现象目文化中存者目中具相关联性涵时译者采化手法说原语文化转化成目语文化样做译文表达容形式超越译文读者知识范围读者更理解译文译语度起较道生动
结
英汉翻译中准确进行英汉互译准确进行文化信息传递翻译者应具良中英语言功底翻译技巧尤重必须英汉两种语言文化差异深刻解译者应忠实原文基础 必补偿手段 充分传达原文信息 原语译语间取限度等值
述分析出文化差异造成翻译障碍意味着翻译然种刻意程需译者觉深入两种文化中区充分认识中英文化差异基础努力异文化持者角度感知异文化真正中西文化结合起达两种语言间真正交流
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Introduction
Translation is a kind of information communication and exchange activity also a kind of comprehensive and complete information spread It uses another language to express and transfer information correctly Exactly as Jurilotman says each language stems from certain concrete culture and takes certain natural language as its center As translation is the exchange of two languages culture exchange is necessary
Different life style value conceptorals belief thinking way cause plenty of differences in many aspects between two languages which cause obstacles towards language learning and ChineseEnglish translation
Culture differences cause of the obstacle translation but that does not mean that translation is impossible in order to reach the real communication between two languages translator should go deep into two cultures in the course from unpainstaking to painstaking and recognize another culture from point of its owners on the basis of ChineseEnglish differences combine chinese and english culture so translator must carry logical deduction on the basis of the exact connotation of the origin language context and try to let readers get the same feelings as the origin language readers
Chapter One The Cultural Orientation in Translation Studies
11 A Brief Discussion of Culture and Translation
Translation and culture are closely related to each other For translation is not only the transfer of one language to another language but also an important means of communication across cultures According to Edward Burnett Tylor in primitive cultures(1871) culture is that complex whole which includes knowledge belief art morals law customs and many other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society (qtd In Chen Dongcheng 2) This definition continually being the basis of modern anthropological conceptions of culture clearly shows that culture regulates people’s life in every possible way including technoeconomic system social system ideational system and linguistic system In reality cultural elements vary from one to another to different degrees thus leading to differences between cultures though no one can accurately point out how many different cultures exist in the world It is these cultural differences that hinder the effective communication among people of different nations and that make translation necessary
Translation is an activity of an enormous importance in the modern world It is a kind of means of exchanges of thought and feeling for peoples who speak different languages Increased international exchanges in science politics trade management and culture have book entitled about translation Peter Newmark proposes five wider purposes of translation among which three are related to crosscultural communication
(1) The first purpose is to contribute to understanding and peace between nations groups and individuals
(2) The second purpose of translation is to transmit knowledge in plain appropriate and accessible language
(3) The third purpose is to explain and mediate between cultures on the basis of a common humanity respecting their strengths implicitly exposing their weaknesses
So we can see cultural exchange should be one of the primary goals of translation Translation facilitates cultural exchange between people from different cultural phenomena of other people thus promoting cultural exchange Translation as generally agreed has played an important role in cultural exchange through which people with different culture can understand more deeply build up closer relationship with each other and even advance themselves by learning from each other In other words each culture can be in touch with other cultures of varying types through translating
12 Cultural Approach to Translation
More and more people in the translation field begin to realize that translations are never produced in a vacuum and that they are also never received in a vacuum In 1990s Susan Bassnett and Andre Lefebvre were the first to suggest that translation studies take the cultural turn the study of translation is the study of cultural interaction(8) Nida also stresses the cultural aspects of translation Since World War Two there have two main streams in translation theory that have developed in Germany the linguistically oriented approach and the culturally oriented approach which is in particular represented by Hans J Vermeer Vermeer describes his concept of translation as follows
Translation is not the transcoding of words or sentences from one language to another but a complex form of action whereby someone provides information on a text (source language material) in a new situation and under changed functional cultural and linguistic conditions preserving formal aspects as closely as possible(33)
He has for many years vehemently opposed the view that translation is simply a matter of language for him translation is primarily a crosscultural transfer According to the cultural approach to translation translation proper is viewed as a cultural product while translating as a cultural transcending process and translation studies as a culturally oriented subject (Vermeer 40) These concepts of translation have greatly widened the meaning of translation translating and translation studies beyond a mere linguistic manipulation In other words translation has become a crosscultural event The culturally oriented approach has some potential for bridging the cultural gap among different peoples thus enhancing the intercultural communication
To sum up translating as a human activity is essentially a communicative process It has been recognized that communication theory should be employed to explain the complex phenomenon of translation while translation itself takes sociocultural message as the object of its operation As the mediator between the culture of the source text and that of the receptor translators are in effect bridges between these two entities They are responsible to try their utmost to attain the goal of crosscultural communication
Chapter Two Culture Discrepancy and Information Loss
21 Idiom and proverb
211 Idiom
Language is the media of culture idiom include proverb slang fold adage metaphor phrase and so on is the quintessence of language Not only does idiom has complete meaning steady structure peculiar grammar but also it is full of cultural information extremely This kind of information maybe national maybe folk custom more them are implication There are part corresponding occasionally between English idiom and Chinese idiom but seldom complete corresponding therefore idiom embedded in the culture characteristic of language is more typical compared with other language composition For example
pull one’s leg is not 拖腿it is 愚弄 a walking skeleton has no connection with 行尸走肉 it implies a thin and pallid person looks like a walking skeleton fishing in the air in English while 水底捞月 in Chinese the same as the pot calls the kettle black its literal meaning is 老鸦嫌猪黑 the meaning it expresses is one himself has the same fault with others he point to while in Chinese we have 五十步笑百步 however even if the meaning of them are similar they cannot be translated in any condition The meaning of Chinese idiom 五十步笑百步 is Both the two people have faults but one is not serious as another which is not contained in English idiom the pot calls the kettle black There is a universal idiom 尚挑水吃两尚抬水吃三尚没水吃 in china If translators do not consider the understanding degree of the culture of this idiom of westerners before translating and just translate it into A lone monk brings his own bucket water to drink two monks carry their bucket water jointly but when three monks are together there is no water at all Well foreigners will be puzzled when they read this sort of translation why three monks cannot carry their bucket water jointly The reason is that the translation does not convey the deep culture connotation of this idiom So it is difficult for us to hold all the composition from surface meaning to deep meaning and culture characteristic in translation
Since English and Chinese idioms are steady word groups and sentences formed in the process of language using its connotation and structure cannot be changed it is evident to take some appropriate measures such as appropriate regulation towards the original idioms according to the context must be made to express the connotation and national cultural characteristic of the original in translation otherwise problems will be caused when translating into another language such as information loss
212 Proverb
Not only is proverb an important part of each nation culture but also language’s People often use them unconsciously As there are so many discrepancies between Chinese and English cultures we should notice them clearly
Chinese often say 东施效颦 叶公龙 愚公移山 狗咬吕洞宾识心 while westerners often say That’s all Greek to me(窍通) He’s a Shylock(守财奴) a Pandora’s box(潘拉盒：潘拉时宙斯神送盒子私开切灾害罪恶全跑散世希留里面语喻灾难麻烦祸害等根源) In Chinese culture 班门弄斧 is known to every house hold but people in English countries don’t know who is LuBan and what he does which forms culture blank If translators translate it into to show off one’s proficiency with the ax before LuBan English and Americans will not understand what it is driving at So explanation can be added to translation to interpret the origin of the idiom free translation which is brief can be used to translate it into to show off in the presence of an expert Another example 三臭皮匠顶诸葛亮 Zhuge Liang is a famous person in Chinese history and is known to all but English and American readers do not know him and his connection with 臭皮匠
It is difficulty to reproduce the rich history culture information contained in sentences by free translation For this reason only take literal translation and contextual amplication together can the original language culture be reproduced as fully as possible
22 Custom
Different life experiences and customs between English nation and Chinese nation certainly will cause great discrepancy in conner manner and pattern when convey recognize questions Views towards the same thing will be entirely different because of different culture background
In Chinese culture dragon is a magical animal in Chinese antiquity mythology It stands for the antiquity emperor such as 龙袍 龙颜 Now it has been symbolize of Chinese nation as a kind of culture accumulation We are proud of saying 龙传 There are plenty of idioms with 龙 express happy wish and power such as 龙飞凤舞龙腾虎跃生龙活虎藏龙卧虎攀龙附凤子成龙 But in Bible Evil Satan who is oppose to God is called the Great Dragon In English Dragon always stands for evil horror So Dragon is a horror monster and always used to metaphor vicious power Chinese often use 子成龙 to express their will towards children If it is translated into expecting one’s child to be a dragon Foreigners will be amazed as nobody is willing their children to change into evil So only the image of 龙 in 子成龙 be cancelled and translated into everyone wants his child to shine does it reach the same effect as Chinese Take owl for another example owl is connected with die death bad unlucky funeral in Chinese it always stands for unlucky Because owl relates to forewarning and superstition it always acts at night its sound sounds sad there is a statement 林中听声家里会死 However in English culture owl stands for wise such as as wise as an owl owlish owlishly clever serious
So it is certain to keep special caution in the course of translation when there is culture collision Free translation or free translation plus explanation can be taken to solute translation of words by words should be avoid otherwise misread will be caused
23 Religion Belief and Historical Allusion
231 Religion Faith
Different historical origins cause different religious beliefs
Most Chinese believe in Buddhism People who believe in Buddhism think that Beads can control everything of the world there is 花献佛 闲时烧香时抱佛脚 and so on In many west countries people believe in Christianity and there are plenty of idioms connected with Christianity For example God helps those who help themselves (帝帮助助) But there is also curse such as go to hell Besides in Chinese culture both 天and are stand for supreme divinities Newlymarried couple 天can be translated into kowtow to heaven and earth
So when we do translation works we must notice these culture differences take proper measures to reach the real communication between two languages
232 Allusion
As we all know set phrase and allusion stemmed from Bible can be found everywhere in English and American’s daily life Such as Noah’s ark (诺亚方舟) the Tower of Babel (巴塔喻空想计划空中楼阁) scape—goat (罪羊喻指代受者) Naboth’s bineyard (伯葡萄园喻指垂涎物) and so on I believe that we are all familiar with the Trojan War these are the Greek gifts for you is a classical remark about the Trojan War This sentence stemmed from the epic
As there are so many discrepancies between Chinese and English cultures we should notice these discrepancies when translating and try to translate them better
24 Cultural Connotation of Color Words
Culture limits the significance deduction of color words culture significance of color words refract many rich culture connotation Different cultural contexts cultural traditions and culture psychologies causes different culture connotation of color words even cause understanding and expression error In fact in different situation and language environment it is the deep culture element of color words that cause people’s association of certain color words not the surface significance Once color words gain connotation or culture not only is it an objective concrete thing but also a kind of steady thought way and reflects very important social meaning and culture connotation Color deduces different associative meaning and symbolizes meaning in the long human history Different culture environment of English nation and Chinese nation formed different color concept For instance
In the traditional concept of Chinese nation yellow is the color of emperor so there is 黄袍加身 in history at the same time yellow have the meaning 道德 流 however yellow’s meanings in English is different it’s 胆懦弱 Such as yellowbelly胆鬼懦夫
Besides white also has different significance in English and Chinese the bride’s white ceremonial robe stands for lucky and happy while in Chinese culture it stands for funeral affairs Another example red stand for joyous and happy in Chinese culture it is a commendatory term Such as 红运头 红火 红歌星 and so on Seeing red Chinese always think of good turn such as Chinese traditional wedding while westerners think of blood violence or crime red also stands for danger therefore in western there is to catch someone red –landed场捉住某 to paint the town red狂欢胡闹 red tape官僚作风 red light district红灯区 and so on
From the above examples we can obtain that the same color can express different culture psychology and cause different culture association with different culture connotation In the translation of color words we must grasp its culture meaning and try to translate the imply meaning of the original correctly and the appraise significance of the original according to the concrete context otherwise it cannot translate the information completely and causes nonunderstandable information distortion So in EnglishChinese translation only understand the meaning correctly try to figure out carefully can translators present the culture connotation contained in the original color completely
Chapter Three Strategic Methods of Cultural Compensation
31 Annotation
Since Chinese culture and English culture are different translation of some certain words are different to interpret there words clearly such as people’s name or technical terms annotation is needed Annotation is to add some interpretation to the translation after translating To translate people’s name or technical terms which are national and cultural we can take the method of transliteration annotation There are two forms
311 Transliteration Annotation
In order to let reader’s know the implication of the transliteration words exactly translators always add some explanation words to the transliteration words when transliterate some certain original people’s name place name or technical term such as in EnglishChinese sauna桑（浴）（源芬兰种蒸浴）Zeus宙思（希腊神话中神）Venus维纳斯（罗马神话中爱美女神）Pandora’s box潘拉盒子（根希腊神话宙斯命潘拉带着盒子潘拉私开盒子里面疾病罪恶等种祸害全跑出散布世）Internet特网（国际范围计算机互联网络）
In ChineseEnglish translation to let the western reader understand Chinese culture better transliteration annotation is always taken For example 清明Qingming(a Chinese traditional holiday to commemorate the dead observed in late spring ) 太极拳Taijiquan (taiji a form of stylized exercises based on Chinese martial arts which emphasize the smooth transition of one movement into another while retaining balance) 饮茶Yincha(a style of serving Chinese food in which dinners help themselves to small quantities from a wide range of dishes wheeled around on a trolley)
312 Literal Translation
In order to introduce the knowledge concern to the original language culture and make them understand the original cultureliteral translation is always taken
Translators use annotation to make up the meaning loss caused by literal translation
This kind of translation can allow translation reader to join in the original reader as possible as they can to understand the original custom thought ways and expression skill Such as 然烟钓着竿子旧递探春探春递宝玉宝玉道：做姜太公便走石矶坐池边钓起岂知水里鱼见影躲处（曹雪芹红楼梦第81回）
When Hisuyen had followed suit and returned the rod to Tanchun she handed it to Baoyu I am going to fish like Jiang Taigong he announced as he walked the stone steps and sat down by the pool But his reflection frightened the fish away (Translate by cCao Xueqin)Jiang Taigong of the eleventh century BC was said to fish by the Weishui River (present Shensi) hold a line with no hook or bart there feet above the water and say at the same time Whoever is ordained come and take the bait
In Chinese culture for common western reader the name姜太公is strange Translator firstly translate it literally then introduce cultural background related to it By this the western reader can understand the profound connotation of the metaphor姜太公钓鱼愿者钩completely therefore fulfill the transfer of the cultural information
In English and Chinese language only through literal annotation can many of the cultural connotations of proverb be understand deeply by destination reader For example Achilles’ heel阿基里斯脚踵阿基里斯希腊神话中英雄出生母亲握脚踵倒提着冥河水里浸未浸水脚踵外浑身刀枪入脚踵称致命弱点Vulcan and Venus 乌尔坎维纳斯罗马神话中乌尔坎维纳斯丈夫火冶炼神天生瘸腿容貌丑陋维纳斯爱美神子成龙：long to see one’s son succeed in life long to see one’s son become a dragon(ie went success in the world) 三臭皮匠赛诸葛亮：three cobblers with their wits combined surpass ZhuGe Liang the master mind—the wisdom of the masses exceeds that of the wisest individual
32 Contextual Amplification
As an effective methods to pass culture information contextual amplification is a c
ourse of expressing the meanings in translation which the original reader know clearly while the translational reader not Contextual amplification is a process from outside to inside a process of changing the preface structure to deep structure that is to say to express the composition which are omitted in original preface and make the translational reader understand the information contained in the original For instants
(1) My 15 students read Emerson Thoreau and Huxley (College English Intensive Reading Book 2 p 47) 教15位学生读艾默生梭罗赫胥黎作品Emerson ThoreauHuxley分哲学家然家说作家名字动词read面翻译时译名字应该补充必信息
(2) 难道痴丫头颦葬花称？笑道：真叶葬花谓东施效颦新奇更厌（曹雪芹红楼梦第30回）
Can this be some silly maid come here to bury flowers like Frowner He wondered He was reminded of Zhuangzi’s story of the beautiful Xishi’s ugly neighbor whose endeavours to imitate the little frown that made Xishi captivating produced an aspect so hideous that people ran away from her in terror (David Hawkes)
Common western reader don not understand the metaphor the beautiful Xishi’s ugly neighbor whose endeavor to imitate the little fiownIn Chinese Translator melt this metaphor in original into the destination language ingeniously and give the translational reader important cultural information Another example
(3) It was Friday and soon they’d go out and get drunk 星期五发薪日马会出喝酩酊醉If translate it into：星期五出喝酩酊醉It seems loyal smooth however readers are puzzled Why they go out and drunk only in Friday As it turns out it is Friday that employees gain their salaries so in translation it is inevitable to express the meaning contained in Friday and make the culture information be clear at a glance It must point out that translators should loyal to the original when they adopt contextual amplification method The words added to the original should be appropriate If they add anything that the original has not they make the overtake translation error
33 Paraphrase
Paraphrase is not to translate the original context word by word it is a sort of means to explain the meaning of the original words and sentences in context to translational readers straightly Nera says Translating means translating meaning If the translation can’t express the original meaning clearly and puzzled its readers It is not good translation In fact it is an effective skills for translators to use the most brief words to embed explanation words into translation straightly
(1)Being a teacher is being present at the creation when the clay begins to breathe
(Cllege English Intensive Reading Book 2 p 48) 名教师意味着创造见证目睹体开始呼吸开始生命In this sentence creation clay and breath relate to the creation context the world in Bible Here clay is 体 which opposite to soul while breathe stands for成长发展If translate clay and breathe into 粘土 and 呼吸 many readers will not know what it wants to express
(2)Let both sides unite to heed in all corners of the earth the command of Isaiah to undo the heavy burdens(and) let the oppressed go free(John K ennedy Inaugural Speech)球什方双方记住先知赛亚（圣物）重托：卸重负受压迫活
Isaish is a person of foresight stem from Bible and the Old Testament His name is Jehovah save He is rich in accomplishment full of literary talent and broad and profound learning He is not afraid of authority authority and not scared of danger he predicts that Isuel will be saved now and thenKennedy referred to this name in his brief assume office Speech For westerners who believe in Christianity it’s influence and moral is selfevident However if Isaiah be translate into 赛亚 literally added no explanational illustration plenty of Chinese will not know this person not to say the connective meaning
For destination readers many idioms or allusions are rather strange free translation is a better choice in translation Such as
(i)投罗网：Walk right into the trap
(ii)奇花异木：Exotic flowers and rare trees
(iii)班门弄斧：Showing off one’s proficiency with the axe before Lu Ban the master carpenter
(iv)志者事竟成：Where there’s a will there’s a way
34 Adaptation
When there is no certain cultural phenomenon of the original or connective culture or connotation in destination translators always use adaptation that is to say to translate the original culture into destination culture as possible as they can By this the context and form of the original do not surpass the knowledge range of the translation reader and understood better by its readers For example
(1) Among the blind the one eyed man is King
山中老虎猴子称霸王（宜译成：盲圈里独眼王）
（2）When John was talking about the affair we smelled a rat
约翰说件事时感怀疑（宜译成：约翰说件事时闻老鼠）
（3）俗语说：清官难断家务事时正公婆难断床帷事（红楼梦第23回）
As an old saying goes Not even good officials can settle family troubles so Not
even parents can settle disputes between son and wife
(If translate 床帷事 into thing in the bed curtain readers will feel funny)
Since translation refers the transform of two different cultures of two different languages we cannot neglect the divergence of two different culture we should take appropriate methods to carry out culture compensation in translation Translators should use one or more ways to transform original information completely and to fulfill maximum equality between translation and original In the process of translation translators should give consideration to the connection between translation and original not only loyal to the original but also make the translation correct smooth easy to understand meet the destination language’s habit Only in this way can the translation reader gain the same feelings as the original reader
Conclusion
Translation is the forcible replacement of the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text with a text that will be intelligible to the targetlanguage reader Difficulties in translation are due to precisely the lack of onetoone correspondence between source language and the target language because of linguistic and cultural differences Thus cultural loss in translation is unavoidable In order to inherit the cultural relics and promote cultural among different peoples the translator must compensate for the cultural losses in the process of translation for common core in human culture has provided an important bases for it
Cultural compensation in translation should be viewed as a manipulation that consciously constitutes a meeting point where cultures are mutually enriched Therefore translators should try to make cultural peculiarity comprehensible in the recipient culture while also preserving the integrity of the source culture as far as possible by employing different strategic compensation methods to keep the cultural loss to a minimum It is impossible to compensate for all cultural elements in an article or a book using only one method of cultural compensation so one must take a flexible attitude in dong compensation My view of all these compensation methods may be boiled down to one concise conclusion that they are indispensable and supplementary to one another with the method of annotation as the primary and other methods as the secondary and they ought to be adopted in a flexible and realistic manner
All in all thesis is a preliminary attempt to probe into the culture issues within limited time and space
There are still more to be found in the studies of this aspect
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文中文缩写
前言
作语际交流工具翻译仅语言转换程文化移植程中西方生活方式价值观念伦理道德宗教信仰思维方式等方面差异导致中西两种语言诸方面语言学造成定障碍英汉翻译产生影响
文化差异造成翻译障碍意味着翻译然种刻意程需译者觉深入两种文化中区充分认识中英文化差异基础努力异文化持者角度感知异文化真正中西文化结合起达两种语言间真正交流译者必须根原语词汇语境中确切含义进行逻辑推理译语损失信息加补偿译语种显示出原语中明实含义译文读者原文读者致相感受
第章 翻译中文化转
翻译文化紧密相连翻译单纯种语言转换成外种语言种跨文化间重交流手段越越译者开始意识翻译蹴会蹴
翻译作种类活动种交流程交流理应阐释复杂翻译现象翻译应基社会文化基础互相作分割
第二章 文化差异信息走失翻译信息走失
21 英汉语谚语文化差异
211 语
语言文化载体语堪称语言精华仅意义完整结构固定语法特殊文化信息异常丰富种信息民族民俗更言外意话外音语体现语言文化特征方面语言成分更具典型性
212 谚语
谚语历史文化中重组成部分具浓厚民族色彩文化性
22 风俗惯文化差异翻译信息突
英汉民族生活验风俗惯势必造成英汉民族观察认识问题角度方式方法存着差异件事物文化背景法相径庭翻译程中出现文化突时定特 谨慎采取意译意译加解释方法解决切字字翻译否会引起误解
23 宗教信仰历史典文化差异翻译信息影响
231 宗教信仰
中西文化历史渊源宗教信仰
232 典
典民族文化重组成部分 语言重组成部分常常觉运民族文化遗产典
24 颜色词文化涵翻译信息失真
文化制约着颜色词意义演变颜色词文化意义折射出丰富文化涵文化容文化传统文化心理异英汉颜色词文化涵差异较容易造成理解表达错误实际场合语境里非某颜色词表层意义起作深层文化素造成某种颜色联想颜色词旦获涵意义文化意义仅指客观某种具体事物种定思想方法反映出非常重社会意义文化涵颜色漫长类历史演绎着联想意义象征意义英汉民族文化环境形成色彩观
第三章 翻译中文化补偿
作语际交流工具翻译仅语言转换程文化移植程原语文化译语文化间差异受语境时空观念思维方式等素制约原语符号译语符号指称语言言三意义层面应换句话说翻译时总少信息走失译者必须根原语词汇语境中确切含义进行逻辑推理译文读者原文读者致相感受
31 加注
翻译某民族文化性强名术语时采取音译加注方法处理两种形式
311 音译附加说明性译文
音译原语某名名术语时译者音译词面加解释性文字便译语读者解该音译词确切含义
312 直译加注
译语读者介绍原语文化关知识加深原文解译者采直译加注办法补偿直译带意义损失种翻译允许译文读者加入原语行列充分理解原文俗思维方式表现手法
32 增译
作传递文化信息种效手段增译译文中表示出原语读者目然译语读者知道意义增译程实际表里原文表层结构原成深层结构程说原文表层省略成分现出译语读者理解原文中蕴含信息
33 释义
释义逐字逐句移译原文直接译者解释原语词句文中意义种手段情况译者简练语言直接译文中嵌进阐释性文字失种效翻译技巧
34 化
原语中某种文化现象目文化中存者目中具相关联性涵时译者采化手法说原语文化转化成目语文化样做译文表达容形式超越译文读者知识范围读者更理解译文译语度起较道生动
结
英汉翻译中准确进行英汉互译准确进行文化信息传递翻译者应具良中英语言功底翻译技巧尤重必须英汉两种语言文化差异深刻解译者应忠实原文基础 必补偿手段 充分传达原文信息 原语译语间取限度等值
述分析出文化差异造成翻译障碍意味着翻译然种刻意程需译者觉深入两种文化中区充分认识中英文化差异基础努力异文化持者角度感知异文化真正中西文化结合起达两种语言间真正交流
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